Historical Context of Indian Administration
The seeds of the present Indian Administrative system, to a great extent, are rooted in the history of India under the British rule. The forces of the British Indian History left a lasting imprint on the now prevailing Indian Administrative Structure.
Though Indians were very happy to get rid of the colonial rule but soon it was realized that the governmental system and administrative machinery developed during the British raj was capable of meeting out the needs of the country, therefore the same administrative system was maintained for running the administrative apparatus of the country even after independence.
The main ingredients of the British colonial administration like parliamentary system, federal structure, governance in the provinces, civil services, district and judicial administration, rule of law, etc. continued to be the backbone of the present Indian Administrative Machinery.
The organized Civil Service, in the scientific sense of the term, was evolved during the British Period. The contemporary administrative system and its structure, rules and regulations, norms and conventions etc are the direct successors of the British steel framework. We witness a remarkable degree of continuity in the various aspects of the contemporary Indian administrative system from its immediate past.
Some of the places on which British Raj has left its impression are as follows:
Governance:
The legacy of the British Administration can be evaluated properly if one knows the condition of the country before the establishment of the British Supremacy. The country was passing through a distressing and traumatic experience. At the close of the 18th century, the country was in a dismal (miserable condition) state. The British administration established tranquility, and peace, provided protection and security to the people, where chaos, lawlessness and bloodshed had prevailed previously.
Rajni Kothari observes, “…..The British Rule that followed such a long period of turmoil provided security, enforced a rule of law, and heralded a long period of peace and stability.’’
Rule of Law:
The second legacy of the British administration was the introduction of the rule of law. The Government by law has been the peculiar mark of British political practice and influence. This doctrine which binds the government as much as the subject to justify its action in the courts was a typically British contribution to the Indian polity. In general, the British administration left a strong legal tradition whose aim was to guard against the abuse of power.
Civil Service:
The third legacy of the British administration was the Indian Civil Service, the “steel frame’’ of administration in India, which gained for itself a well deserved reputation as perhaps the finest and most incorruptible civil service in the world. The British created a modern Bureaucracy in India, a unified service based on merit and open competition. These principles were tried out in India even before they were introduced in Great Britain.
With the transfer of power in 1947, the British rulers withdrew, but left a well trained competent and experienced civil service, able to take multifarious tasks of government which proved to be a tremendous asset to India in the movements of its need.
The contemporary Indian Administrative Service and Indian Police Service are the direct successors of the pre-1947 Indian Civil Service and Indian Police Service, were designed to fulfill the country’s post-Independence requirements in terms of both caliber and character. The government of independent India only changed the name of the service to the ‘IAS’ but retained the basic structure, functions and overall ethos practically in toto.
All India Services:
The All India Services are a legacy of the unitary government of India of the era before the reforms of 1919. They include the Indian Civil Service and the Imperial Police and a number of other technical and specialized services. Other All India Services were constituted towards the close of 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. On the achievement of Independence, the future of these services was one of the most important questions that had to be decided. It was felt that All India Services with their wider outlook and larger experience of administration and greater competence were necessary in the period of transition for maintaining continuity of administration. Therefore, the Constituent Assembly debated the question and decided to provide for the creation of All India Services. The Constitution empowered Parliament to create new All India Services by law on the adoption of resolution by the Rajya Sabha recommending their creation by two-thirds majority of its members present and voting.
District Collector:
The District Collector who is the key functionary of the state administration is the direct successor of the pre-1947 District Magistrate and collector. He was charged with the overall tasks of administering the affairs of his district, with the preservation of law and order, the dispensing of justice, and collection of revenue. Unfortunately, his duties and symbolic importance were even greater. He was the physical embodiment of the British Raj.
Despite the change in government that took place in India after independence, the structure of District level administration has remained relatively unchanged. The District Collector is still the kingpin of the Indian administration. As a matter of fact, the whole of the administrative apparatus, steel framework has been inherited and adopted by the rulers in the post- 1947 period.
Institutionalized System of Recruitment:
The contemporary Union, state and Joint-state Public Service Commissions are the direct successors of the federal, Provincial and Joint Public Service Commission’s established under the Government of India Act 1935. The contemporary authority making recruitment in Railway Services is the successor of the Federal Railway Authority established by the Govt. of India Act, 1935.
The System of Institutionalized Training:
The system of institutionalized training as well as on job training was evolved during the British period and has been inherited by the Contemporary Indian system.
Principle of Neutrality of Civil Servants:
The principle of neutrality of Civil Servants and the norms of relationship between ministers and the civil servants, maladies of red-tapism, authoritarian and high-handed behavior of the administrative machinery, the high-brow culture of the higher civil servants, too, are a part of the British legacy.
Government of India Act, 1935:
The provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 particularly regarding to public services found its place in the Constitutional provisions. Even today, the Civil Servants are governed according to the Provisions of the Bombay Civil Service Rules (1922). The basic principles of organization of post-independence India are largely rooted in the pre-1947 era.
Federalism:
The framers of the Indian Constitution of India turned to federalism in their attempt to frame a constitution for a new, united India. The choice of Federalism as a constitutional form and as the basis of national government in India was not a sudden development upon the transfer of power on 15th August, 1947. It was there for many years and, in a limited form, it was already in operation in British India. The Act of 1935 was the brainchild of the British authorities and was designed to establish a highly centralized federation with a fair measure of provincial autonomy, always subject to the ultimate control of the paramount powers. Its federal features were never implemented, but their influence on the character of the government of India is manifest.
The Constitution of 1950, obviously copying the Government of India Act of 1935, itemized the powers of the Centre and the States in three lists. Thus, the model of federalism we have adopted in our Constitution is a British legacy.
Parliamentary system:
Parliamentary system of governance adopted by our constitution for the country is based on British parliamentary system. Parliamentary government and legislative in their modern connotation owe their origin and growth to India’s British connection for some two centuries. By planting institutions and processes of parliamentary democracy in India, the British rulers had trained the Indians in parliamentariasm.
Conclusion:
What administrative legacy did Britain leave behind?
Ø A bare framework of federal system with a strong unitary bias, parliamentary system of government, a bicameral legislature at the Centre, a first class judicial set-up with a Supreme Court at Delhi and a High Court in every State, the district collector of revenue and upholder of law and order, supported by revenue and police hierarchies was a creation of the British, for which we have not found a suitable alternative yet.
Ø With the passage of time, a new system of courts was created, based on Anglo-Saxon principles and procedures of jurisprudence and their ancestry in the British common law and precedents.
Ø Still later, a structure of social and economic administration based on principles of collective welfare was brought into being and measures of reform striking at gross disparities and inequalities were gradually introduced.
Ø This further changed the nature of civil administration and introduced new ways of looking at and society which, while it gave a jolt to traditional notions, fitted in well with the new ideas that were gaining currency.
Ø They also gave India a greater degree of national unity and solidarity and a better form of government than it had ever enjoyed. The British developed a pattern of rule which is still followed in its basic outlines by free India. This administrative system extended through British India, even to the village level, and indirectly it affected the Princely States as well.
By associating Indians in increasing numbers in the administrative services, the British helped to train generation of capable administrators.
Constitutional Context of Indian Administration
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
Parliamentary Democracy Fundamental Rights Directive Principles Socialist way of life Independent Judiciary Independent and neutral bureaucracy Federalism Secularism
· The definition given by Smith reflects three aspects of secularism in the form of inter-related relations as:
- Religion and Individual
- Individual and State
- State and Religion
- Individual and State
- State and Religion
The provisions regarding public services in general and Public Service Commissions in particular find a place in the fundamental law of the land. The incorporation of the provisions regarding public services in the constitution itself is a unique feature of the Indian system.
It indicates the realization on the part of the Constitution makers that the quality and efficiency of the state depends upon the availability of men of vision, ability, integrity and loyalty to operate the administrative machinery of the state. To maintain the continuity of policy, to protect the public services from political or personal influence and to give it that position, stability and security which is vital in its successful working as an impartial and efficient instrument by which governments of whatever political complexion may give effect to the policies. Keeping in view, Part XIV, Articles 308 to 323 of the Indian Constitution make provisions regarding the services under the union and the states. A brief account of these provisions is given below.
1) Public Services:
The term “Public Service” refers to the personnel employed by government on both the civil and military sides of the administration.
Article 311 of the Constitution refers to the following five categories of persons on the civil side of the administration.
a) A person who is a member of a civil service of the Union.
b) A person who is a member of an All India service.
c) A person who is a member of a civil service of a state.
d) A person who holds a civil post under the Union.
e) A person who holds a civil post under a state.
2) Recruitment, Security of Tenure and Service Conditions:
Art 309 empowers Parliament and the State legislatures to regulate the recruitment and the conditions of the Public Services of the Union and the State respectively.
Art 310 provides that all persons who are members of the Defence Services, All India Services hold office during the pleasure of the President. Similarly, members of the State Services hold office during the pleasure of the governor. However, to hold office during the pleasure of the President does not mean that a member of the Public Services can be dismissed arbitrarily by the President or the Governor.
Article 311 of the Constitution provides safeguards against such action. They are as follows:
i) No member of a Civil Service of the Union or an All India Service or a State Service can be dismissed or removed by an authority subordinate to that by which he was appointed.
ii) No such member shall be dismissed or removed or reduced in rank until he has been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the action proposed to be taken in regard to him.
iii) There are few exceptions to these facilities:
a) Where a person is dismissed or reduced in rank on the ground of conduct which has led to his conviction on a criminal charge.
b) Where it is impracticable to give the civil servant an opportunity to defend himself. But the authority taking action against him shall record the reason for such action.
c) Where in the interest of the security of the state it is not expedient to give such an opportunity to the civil servant.
Civil servants must be given such security of tenure as will give them confidence to deal forth rightly with their masters. This is to a large extent obtained by the constitutional guarantees.
3) All India service:
Art 312 of the Constitution empowers the Council of States to create All India Service, by resolution supported by not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting in the interest of nation. Parliament may by law provide for the creation of one a more all India services common to the Union and the States, and subject to the other provisions of the chapter, regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to any such services. It further secures the I.A.S. & I.P.S. also.
4)Special Provisions Regarding Indian Civil Services:
According to Art 314, the members of the ICS were entitled to receive from the Government of India and the State government the same conditions of service as they were entitled to immediately before the commencement of the constitution. These provisions regarding the ICS were subsequently abolished in 1972 by the Union Parliament.
5) Public Service Commission-
Considering the diversity in Indian society and rights of minority there is a provision of Public Service Commission for the Union, as well as Public Service Commission for each state.
On the recommendation of two or more states, Parliament by law, provide for the appointment of a Joint State Public Service Commission to serve the need of those states.
Thus, there is a Public Service Commission for the Union; as well as a Public Service Commission for each state.
Unlike the Constitutions of several other states, very elaborate provisions regarding the public services and the Public Service Commissions have been made in the Indian Constitution. The inclusion of these provisions in the Constitution has given it a distinct status and sanctity. The provisions have contributed to safeguard the interest of the public service employees in India.
Public Private Partnership in India
Infrastructure shortages are proving a key constraint in sustaining and expanding India’s economic growth and ensuring that all Indians are able to share in its benefits. To meet this challenge, the Government of India is committed to raising investment in infrastructure from its existing level of below 5% of GDP to almost 9%. This suggests that more than $450bn will be required to fund infrastructural development in India over the next five years. However, the scope for making improvements on this scale is fundamentally constrained by the state of public finances. The combined deficit of the central and state governments is roughly 10% of GDP and government borrowing is capped through the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management Act. This necessarily limits the capacity of the State to finance as much infrastructural development as is required and it is likely that at least one-third of the finance needed for infrastructural development over the next five years will be funded by the private sector.
Responding to this challenge, the Government of India is actively promoting the expansion of Public Private Partnership (PPP) activities across all key infrastructure sectors including highways, ports, power and telecoms. To date, various PPP models have been tried in India, including public contracting; passive public investment (equity, debt, guarantee, grants); joint ventures; and long-term contractual agreements (BOT, BOOT, BOLT). Regardless of the model pursued, however, the overwhelming consensus is that PPPs are the primary means by which the Government of India will seek to overcome the ‘infrastructure deficit’.
PPPs are a relatively new phenomenon in India but already more than Rs.1000 billion worth of PPP projects are currently under development across the country. Both central and state-level governments are hoping to build on this progress, both by scaling up the use of PPPs in sectors where progress has already been made and introducing it into sectors where few private projects have yet been realized. However, to achieve their ambitions for the use of PPPs in infrastructure projects, both national and state governments will need to provide for much higher visibility PPP programs and also seek to disseminate best practice, as both commercial and bureaucratic learning advances.
It is important to understand that PPPs are not catch-all solutions to the persistent difficulties of under-investment and lack of resources for development. As the World Bank (2006) has recently pointed out, in regard to Indian infrastructural development, PPPs represent a claim on public resources that need to be understood and assessed. They often involve complex transactions, needing a clear specification of the services to be provided and an understanding of the way risks are allocated between the public and private sector. Moreover, the long-term nature of many PPPs means that government has to develop and manage a relationship with private providers to overcome unexpected events that can disrupt even the best designed contracts. And ultimately, PPPs always involve projects for which, in the eyes of citizens, government ultimately bears responsibility – even if the task of delivery has been contracted out.
Public-Private Partnership (PPP):
There is no widely accepted definition of a Public Private Partnership (PPP). In broad terms, PPP refers to an arrangement between the public and private sectors with clear agreement on shared objectives for the delivery of public infrastructure and/or public services. It is an approach that public authorities adopt to increase private sector involvement in the delivery of public services. In many countries, PPPs are now a central feature of ongoing efforts to modernize public services and infrastructure.
The Government of India defines PPPs as:
‘A partnership between a public sector entity (sponsoring authority) and a private sector entity (a legal entity in which 51% or more of equity is with the private partner/s) for the creation and/or management of infrastructure for public purpose for a specified period of time (concession period) on commercial terms and in which the private partner has been procured through a transparent and open procurement system’. (Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 2007a)
v In some types of PPP, the government uses tax revenue to provide capital for investment, with operations run jointly with the private sector or under contract ( contracting out)
v In other types (notably the private finance initiative), capital investment is made by the private sector on the strength of a contract with government to provide agreed services.
v Government contributions to a PPP may also be in kind (notably the transfer of existing assets).
v In projects that are aimed at creating public goods like in the infrastructure sector, the government may provide a capital subsidy in the form of a one-time grant, so as to make it more attractive to the private investors.
v In some other cases, the government may support the project by providing revenue subsidies, including tax breaks or by providing guaranteed annual revenues for a fixed period.
Typically, a private sector consortium forms a special company called a “special purpose vehicle” (SPV) to develop, build, maintain and operate the asset for the contracted period. In cases where the government has invested in the project, it is typically (but not always) allotted an equity share in the SPV. The consortium is usually made up of a building contractor, a maintenance company and bank lender(s). It is the SPV that signs the contract with the government and with subcontractors to build the facility and then maintain it. In the infrastructure sector, complex arrangements and contracts that guarantee and secure the cash flows, make PPP projects prime candidates for Project financing.
A typical PPP example would be a hospital building financed and constructed by a private developer and then leased to the hospital authority. The private developer then acts as landlord, providing housekeeping and other non medical services while the hospital itself provides medical services.
Main features of PPPs:
Cooperative and contractual relationships:
PPPs represent cooperation between the government and the private sector. PPPs are not the same as privatization in that both public sponsors and private providers function as partners throughout project development and delivery, and often in operation and maintenance. The most successful partnership arrangements draw on the relative strengths of both the public and private sector in order to establish complementary relationships between them.
PPP arrangements are long-term in nature, typically extending over a 15 to 30 year period. This is a factor which helps to which establish productive and lasting relations between the public and private sectors. Demonstrating an enduring public sector commitment to the provision of quality services to consumers, under terms and conditions agreeable to both the government and the private sector, PPPs are used to develop and operate public utilities and infrastructure. These collaborative ventures are built around the expertise and capacity of the project partners and are based on a contractual agreement, which ensures appropriate and mutually agreed allocation of resources, risks, and returns.
Shared responsibilities:
While the specific responsibilities for delivery will vary according to each project, a key feature of PPPs is that these responsibilities will be shared between the public body and the private consortium.
In some initiatives, this might require the private sector company to play a significant role in all aspects of delivery of the service, while in others its functions may be more limited. However, unlike instances of privatization, the overall role of government remains unchanged in a PPP: it is the government which remains ultimately accountable and responsible for the provision of high quality services that meet the public need.
A method of procurement:
PPPs are instruments for government bodies to deliver desired outcomes to the public sector, by making use of private sector capital to finance the necessary assets or infrastructure.
The private company is rewarded for its investment in the form of either service charges from the public body, revenues from the project, or a combination of the two. This renders affordable those projects that might not otherwise have been feasible, because the public body was unwilling or unable to borrow the requisite capital.
PPPs allow the private sector to play a greater role in the planning, finance, design, operation and maintenance of public infrastructure and services than under traditional public procurement models.
Moreover, where traditional procurement models begin with the question of what assets the public body has as its disposal and how these might be used to deliver required services, PPP arrangements place the emphasis on the desired service or outcome as identified by the public organization and how the private sector might help to make this happen.
Risk Transfer:
A key element of PPPs is their potential to deliver public projects and services in a more economically efficient manner. At the beginning of the relationship, potential risks associated with the project are identified and each party adopts those which it is best equipped to manage.
The public sector can therefore transfer appropriate risks to the private partner, who has the necessary skills and experience to manage them.
For example, overall risk to the public sector can be reduced by transferring those associated with design, construction and operation to the private partner. The incentive for the private body comes in the form of higher rates of return related to high standards of performance.
Flexible Ownership:
PPPs enable flexible arrangements between public and private bodies, where the public body may or may not retain ownership of the project or facility that is produced. In some cases, the private organization may be contracted only to construct facilities or supply equipment, leaving the public body as owners, operators and maintainers of the service. Alternatively, the public sector may decide it is more cost-effective not to own directly and operate assets, but to purchase these instead from the private entity. Services may be purchased for use by the government itself, as an input to provide another service, or on behalf of the end user.
PPPs are still at a nascent stage in India, but as reliance on PPPs increases, the terms of the projects will invite close scrutiny. Disputes arising out of project terms could also lead to significant payouts by the government, underscoring the importance of careful design of concession terms.
These concerns are not addressed even if project sponsors are selected through competitive bidding. In fact competitive bidding only creates a level playing field for selection of bidders; it may not necessarily secure good value in terms of performance standards, user concerns, public revenues and contingent liabilities. Project terms are, therefore, crucial.
Recognizing these problems, it has been decided to stipulate the following mechanism for approving the PPP projects henceforth:
Role of PPP:
The private partner in a PPP may be a private company, a consortium of private interests, or a nongovernmental organization (NGO). Most often, a PPP project will comprise a public sector agency and a private sector consortium composed of contractors, maintenance companies, private investors, and consulting firms. The consortium will often bring into being a ‘special purpose vehicle’ (SPV) to contract with the public authority as well as with the subcontractors whose task it is to build and maintain the facility in question. The various parties and their respective roles in
PPPs include:
• The Public agency: purchase
The role of the public body is to specify clearly the desired outcomes or outputs, and to avoid identifying a particular means of delivering these. If services are delivered in accordance with the agency’s performance standards, they then pay the PPP provider (most often, the SPV).
• Service providers: Design, construction, operation and maintenance
Private actors have a crucial role in developing innovative solutions in order to meet the requirements of the PPP in an effective and efficient manner. Typically, the SPV will subcontract construction, operations and equipment supply to suitable providers, who may be the parent companies of the SPV and therefore, also equity investors in the project. The SPV also needs to raise the necessary capital to build the assets required for service delivery. Once service delivery has commenced, the payment it receives from the procuring agency can be used to pay suppliers and subcontractors and repay debts.
• Private financiers: Equity investment and debt provision
Generally, the construction and operations companies which make up the SPV are also the equity investors. Equity stakes may also be taken by fund managers and other financial institutions. Because of their interest in generating a return on their outlay, equity investors have a strong incentive to ensure high standards of service performance. The PPP contract provides the sole source of revenue for the SPV and provided the latter meets the required standards, it will be paid by the public authority and so can service its debts.
• Consultants: Project advice
Both the public body and the private sector consortium may decide to engage technical, legal and financial consultants to assist in structuring the tender or composing a viable PPP proposal. Experienced advisors can bring their knowledge and expertise to highlight best practices, as well as identify potential problems and pitfalls.
Strengths & Weaknesses:
Strengths:
v The major strength of PPPs is their ability to deliver value for money in public service procurement and operation.
v By utilizing the differing skills, resources and experience of each party, they allow the public and private sectors to complement each other – the public sector provides its expertise in identifying public needs, service requirements and desired outcomes, and the private sector brings its capacity to effectively utilize assets and manage the construction and operation of services.
Benefits to the public sector:
v The foremost benefit of PPPs, alluded to above, is the scope such partnerships allow for public authorities to raise capital for high priority works that might otherwise not be possible in the face of budgetary and borrowing constraints.
v Here, PPPs can draw on private sector expertise in order to deliver services and infrastructure efficiently and cost-effectively, and to bridge the gap between the resources required and those available from the public purse.
v Gains in efficiency and effectiveness can be realised in a number of ways. Most importantly, the PPP approach encourages private sector innovation by allowing government to delegate responsibility for service design and construction to the private contractor. This enables the public body to identify desired services, outcomes and outputs, while allowing room for the private contractor to innovate in the search for the most appropriate solution to meet those requirements.
v Additionally, PPPs can enable the optimum allocation of public resources in the pursuit of infrastructural development. Whereas traditional models of public procurement focus on achieving the lowest upfront costs in delivering infrastructural projects PPPs concentrate on delivering cost effectiveness over the duration of the asset – including, in particular, those costs associated with operation and ongoing maintenance. This allows the public sector to realise value for money for the entire life of the project or service, rather than just in its initial construction phase.
Benefits to the private sector:
v Engaging in PPPs offers private sector companies a wide range of business opportunities that were previously confined to public agencies. Given the long term nature of these relationships, undertaking work under PPP arrangements provides a stable foundation for the growth of the business.
v In addition, PPP arrangements encourage the private sector to engage in a broader spectrum of activities, throwing open the possibility of designing and delivering innovative solutions, rather than merely constructing assets to existing standards and designs.
Benefits to the public:
v Better quality services:
By combining the skills and expertise of public and private partners, PPPs are able to provide services which meet the needs of the public in a more efficient and cost effective manner. When appropriately designed and implemented, PPPs can yield better quality services without compromising public policy objectives or broader public need.
At the outset of the PPP relationship, the desired quality of service to be achieved from the development of the infrastructural asset is clearly specified, and the expectation is that high standards will be maintained throughout the duration of the project. This contrasts with traditional procurement methods, where the construction of assets is formally separated from operation and maintenance, and consequently, levels of service and conditions of assets will frequently decline over time.
Weaknesses (and risks):
PPPs, like conventional service delivery mechanisms, also have disadvantages and drawbacks. In order to minimize or eliminate these, it is vital that public sector managers recognize and understand them in order to better address problems as they arise, through careful contractual arrangements and negotiations.
ü Firstly, there is the possibility that the public sector may lose managerial control of its services. Under PPPs, the management of outputs is transferred to the private sector, meaning that the public sector has very limited ability to intervene, as long as services are being delivered. The public body has no day-to-day control over the management of the project and is reduced in its capacity to change the project or cooperate with wider public sector services, and indeed may not be able to make use of its own expertise in the area.
ü Secondly, the process of PPP procurement can be time consuming and expensive.
In order for a PPP to be successfully realized, it is vital that before bidding starts, a detailed, clearly structured project appraisal and specification of desired outputs is drawn up. Although this is important to the development of projects that are affordable and provide value for money, it has the potential to make procurement a lengthy and costly procedure.
ü Thirdly, there is the problem of the higher cost of finance in the private sector. The weighted cost of finance in the private sector, including both debt and equity, is typically between 1% and 3% higher than the public sector’s cost of debt on a non- risk adjusted basis. This has the effect of increasing the overall cost of PPP in comparison to traditional procurement methods, unless this can be offset by the increased cost efficiencies that the private sector should deliver.
ü Fourthly, PPPs can sometimes prove to be rather inflexible instruments – especially given the long term nature of most PPP contracts. While there can be significant financial benefits in setting rigidly defined output specifications for the life of the PPP, these should be weighed against the inflexibility this inevitably brings. Under PPP arrangements, there is limited potential for modifying services or flexible spending.
Certain sectors of service provision may require a much greater degree of flexibility and in these cases, an approach which makes use of long-term rigid specifications of outputs may prove difficult or counterproductive.
ü Fifthly, in some areas of public service provision there may be greater public demand for accountability and responsiveness than in others. This may give rise to public criticism or even hostility towards PPP arrangements. Moreover, under PPP arrangements, lines of accountability can be less straightforward (and transparent) than under traditional methods of procurement where lines of accountability (for example, to government ministers) are more direct and immediate. In these circumstances, there may be a need for greater government involvement in the relationship, to ensure compliance and responsiveness to public concerns.
Common misconceptions about PPPs:
Despite criticism of PPPs, there have been rather more successes than failures in this innovative field. Where failure can be identified, it is largely confined to the early years of PPP use. Moreover, many of the initial teething problems have been overcome as a more sophisticated understanding of how best to use PPPs has developed. A few of the most common misconceptions about PPPs are addressed below:
- They are the same as privatization
- Public authorities lose control over service provision
- PPPs only apply to infrastructural projects
- The principal reason to follow a PPP route is to avoid public sector debt
- Service quality will decline
- Public sector staff will lose out
- The cost of the service will increase to facilitate private profit
- The public sector can finance services at a lower cost than the private sector
Personnel Administration:
Personnel administration is an important aspect of public administration in the modern state. Herman Finer observes, ‘Personnel is the sovereign factor in public administration.’
Personnel administration is also called ‘manpower management’, ‘personnel management’, ‘labour welfare management’ and so on. However the term Personnel administration has wider connotation. It deals with classification, recruitment, training, promotion, compensation, discipline and retirement benefits of the personnel in the government.
The enormous growth in the powers, functions and influence of the civil service is one of the most striking aspect of public administration during the last hundred years. The civil servant is no longer a mere police and revenue official; he is engaged in a large variety of development activities and is involved in implementing thousands of projects in different parts of the country.
The economic and social compulsions of free India have led to the acceptance of the concept of a welfare state and a socialistic society to be achieved through a planned process. With the assumption of new functions and responsibilities by the government after independence and importance of the civil service has grown. The success of planning, in fact, depends upon how well the civil servant performs his tasks.
Consequent to expansion in the activities of the state, a significant change has taken place in the approach to the civil service. Today, there is a need for creating positive motivation among officials which would enable them to give their best to the public service.
Recruitment to the All India and Central Services:
Recruitment is the most important aspect of public administration. The efficiency of government machinery and the quality of the services rendered by it depends on the soundness of its recruitment system.
In the words of Glenn Stahl, recruitment is the “cornerstone of the whole public personnel structure. Unless recruitment policy is soundly conceived there can be little hope for building a first rate staff.”
Recruitment means filling up the vacant posts in civil service. It has negative and positive connotations. Negatively, it aims at eliminating those who are not qualified and suitable for the posts in the service. Positively, recruitment emphasizes on an aggressive search for the best qualified, most talented and highly competent personnel through concentration of supply.
Recruitment is the process involving search for suitable prospective employees and inducing them to compete for the position in the organization.
Owing to the tremendous increase in the number of personnel in the public services in the post independence period, the issue of recruitment has assumed great significance. The present system of recruitment to All-India Services and higher Central services in our country is based on the recommendations made by following committees:
I. The Macauley Committee
II. The Kothari Committee
III. The Satish Chandra Committee
In recent times two more Committees were appointed (i) Alagh Committee (July 2000-Oct 2001), and (ii) Hota Committee (Feb 2004-July 2004). The recommendations made by these two committees have not been implemented so far.
The report of the Macauley Committee on the Indian Civil Service laid down the basic policy governing recruitment to civil service for the first time in 1854. The most important aspects of this policy were the system of open competition and the scholastic nature of the examination.
The present scheme of examination to test the merit and suitability of candidates for direct recruitment to the All-India Services and Higher Central Service is laid down by the Kothari Committee and the Satish Chandra Committee. However the basic policy laid down and the philosophy of recruitment advocated by the Macauley Committee continues to influence the system.
The committee on the Recruitment Policy and Selection Methods under the Chairmanship of D. S. Kothari was appointed by the UPSC in 1974.
It recommended-
· Preliminary screening examination besides Main Civil Service Examination.
· Proposed a 400 mark post selection test at the end of year long foundational course of institutional training which is compulsory for each selected candidate.
· Option to answer in any official language for main examination.
· A common combined examination for recruitment common to the IAS, the IPS and non-technical Class I central Services.
· Weightage to Interview.
The Government accepted most of its recommendations in 1978 and implemented them in 1979. Thus the new system of competitive examination came into existence in 1979. Only in 1993 some changes were introduced in this system on the recommendations of the Satish Chandra Committee.
The Committee on the Recruitment Policy and Selection Method for All India and Central Services under the Chairmanship of Satish Chandra was appointed by UPSC in 1988. It submitted its report in 1989. The Government implemented some of its recommendations in 1993. The main changes effected are the introduction of an essay paper carrying 200 marks and increase in the marks for the interview test from 250 to 300.
The Competitive examination conducted by the UPSC for direct recruitment to All India Services and Higher Central Services is known as the ‘Civil Service Examination’
The process of recruitment to All-India Services and Central Services Class I has the following aspects:
i) Recruiting Authority:
Article 310 has vested the power of making recruitment to All India and Central Services in the President of India. Ministry of Personnel and Administrative Reforms makes appointment to the public services in the name of the President of India.
The rules and regulations governing the recruitment are framed by the Union Parliament according to the provision of Article 309 of the constitution.
ii) Recruiting Agency:
The Union Public Service Commission undertakes the recruitment task on behalf of the Government of India. It submits its recommendations after completing the recruiting process. There recommendations are by and large, accepted by the Government of India. The UPSC being a body constituted by the Constitution, the Government does not interfere with its functioning.
iii) Ascertainment of Vacancies:
The Ministry of Personnel and Administrative Reform find outs the number of vacancies that have been taken place, likely to take place in the coming year and new position provided in every ministry and department of Government of India by the end of October every year. On this basis the number of likely vacancies is notified in the public advertisement in this regard.
iv) Notification of Combined Civil Service Examination:
In the month of the Dec. every year the UPSC notifies the programme of combined civil service exam. The notification mentions the total number of vacancies, reservation, qualifications, programme and all procedural details. This notification is published on the same day in more than 700 newspapers- national, regional and local throughout the country as well as in the “Employment News” and “Rozgar Samachar”, the official publications of the Government of India.
v) Eligibility conditions:
a) Age Limit:
The Indian nationals should be in the age group of 21 to 30 years. The upper age limit is relaxed for maximum 5 years for the candidates belonging to the Scheduled Castes/Tribes and other specified categories.
b) Educational Qualification:
The candidate must have graduate of any faculty from any recognized University in India.
c) Sex:
No distinction is made between the male and female candidates.
d) Number of Attempts:
A candidate is entitled to maximum four attempts. The candidates belonging to SC/ST may attempt any number of times till they attain the maximum age limit i.e. 35 years. But the number of attempts permitted to OBC candidate is seven.
e) Reservation:
Consequent to the Constitutional provisions and implementation of the recommendations of Mandal commission, 49.5% seats are reserved for different categories.
Plan of Examination:
The Civil Service Examination consists of two successive stages called the Preliminary Examination and the Main Examination.
Preliminary examination:
The Preliminary examination is a screening test conducted every year during the month of May-June. It is objective type examination in two papers, viz. General Studies and Aptitude Test. Each paper consists of 200 marks. It is now called as CSAT.
vii) Main examination:
Successful candidates of Preliminary Examination proceed for the Main Examination which is usually conducted during the month of Nov-Dec. This examination has two parts viz. written examination and viva-voce. The written examination consists of 9 papers of 300 marks each, containing of the usual essay type answers.
These 9 papers are,
Paper I Indian language mentioned in the VIIIth schedule. 300
Paper II English 300
Paper III Essay 200
Paper IV & 2 papers in General studies (2 x 300) 600
Paper VI & VII 2 papers in first optional subject (2x 300) 600
PaperVIII & IXpapers in second optional subject(2x 300) 500 ________________
Total 2600 Marks
Interview 300 Marks
________________ Grand Total 2900 Marks
Candidates have choice to write their papers (except English and the language papers) either in English or any language mentioned in VIIIth schedule. The question papers however set in English and Hindi.
The marks secured in English and Indian language are only qualifying marks and not taken into consideration for the determination of the order of merit.
viii) Viva-voce:
The Candidate whose name figure in the order merit is interviewed by a Board of Examiners appointed by the UPSC. The object of interview is to assess the personal suitability, mental caliber, his intellectual qualities and social traits and his interest in current affairs.
ix) Order of merit:
The UPSC prepares the order of merit by consolidating marks secured by the candidates in the main examination and the viva-voce. The same is forwarded to the Ministry of Personnel and Administrative Reforms. In all the cases of selection, the preferences indicated by the candidates in their application forms are taken into account. Thereafter, appointment letters are sent by the Ministry of Personnel and Administrative Reforms, after verification of the candidates back-ground. Usually the recommendations of the UPSC are accepted by the Government of India.
Evaluation of Recruitment Process:
Viva-voce and written examinations are the target of the critics in selecting candidates for All India services. In viva-voce there is lot of scope for chance-element where passing moods of examiners can be decisive instead of candidate’s qualities. Again, 15 to 20 minutes conversion can not reveal true qualities of candidates and assessment can be incorrect.
To avoid this lacuna AD Gorwala suggests replacement of viva-voce with psychological test, in which expert psychological examination designed to give a scientific insight into the candidate’s mental and emotional make-up.
About weakness and draw backs of the written examination AD Gorwala remarks that low standard by some of the papers set for optional subjects can gave unfair advantage to some candidates who opt for these subjects. To avoid this inequality he suggests that, “that part of the examination which is common to all candidates must form a larger proportion of the whole than at present.”
Appleby regards the present system is generally inadequate, “examining and appraising techniques are far from modern selection is too much in terms of academic records.”
1) The Indian Civil Service-1854
2) The Indian Police Service-1905
3) Indian forest service-1892
4) The Indian Educational service 1906
5) The Indian agricultural service- 1907
6) The Indian civil veterinary service 1892
7) The Indian forest engineering service – 1892
8) The Indian medical service (Civil) 1897
9) The Indian service of Engineer 1892
Kothari Commissions report
In 1974 Govt. of India appointed a commission on recruitment policy and selection methods under the chairmanship of Dr. B. S. Kothari, on the functioning of the UPSC. The committee submitted its report in 1976.
1) To eliminate the inadequate candidates for the main civil services examination there should be a preliminary screening examination besides the mains examination.
2) The committee proposed a 400-mark post-selection test at the end of a year long foundational course of institutional training which is compulsory for each selected candidate. The assignment to a particular service is to be done on the basis of the total of the marks obtained at the main examination and the post training test, taking into account the candidates preferences for the services.
3) The candidate for main examination should be allowed to write all the papers, except the language, in any language, listed in the VIII schedule of the Constitution or English.
4) The committee recommended that the common combined examination for recruitment common to the IAS the IPS, and non-technical class I central services. It implies that no service is calved upon to take additional examinations thus adding to its ego.
5) The committee proposed that the personality test, known as interview, be assigned 700 marks.
The govt. of India adopted the major recommendations of the committee in Dec 1978. The first examination according to revised scheme was conducted in 1979.
Critics attacked the report on a continuation of Maculay’s formula for the recruitment to public services in India.
Union Public Service Commission:
Every democratic country has entrusted a task of recruitment to public services, to an independent body like the civil service commission as in the United States and Britain. This is essential to protect it from political and personal influences and to give it that position of stability and security which is vital to its successful working as the impartial and efficient instruments by which govt., may give effect to their policies.
• The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) is a constitutional body in India authorized to conduct examinations for appointment to the various civil services of the Union. It is an independent Constitutional body in the sense that it is directly created by the Constitution in India. The Constitution contains elaborate provisions regarding the composition, appointment and removal of members, powers and functions and independence of the UPSC. Apart from UPSC, the Constitution also provides for a State Public Service Commission (SPSC) for each state and a Joint State Public Service Commission (JSPSC) for two or more states.
• The Indian Constitution (Part XIV - Services under the Union and the states - article no. 315 to 323) provides for a Public Service Commission for the Union and a Public Service Commission for each state.
• The first Public Service Commission was set up for the all India and higher services on October 1st, 1926 by the then British Indian Government in response to the demands of Indian politicians that the superior Civil Services be indianized.
• The functions of this Public Service Commission were largely advisory and, because of this limitation, it failed to satisfy the demands of Indian political parties associated with the struggle for freedom. The British Indian government then set up a Federal Public Service Commission and provided for the formation of provincial level Public Service Commission’s under the Government of India Act 1935.
When the present Constitution was being framed, the Federal Public Service Commission was already functioning. The experience of these commissions was valuable to the framers of Constitution. Except for a few changes, they have closely followed the provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 in this regard.
Composition:
· The UPSC consists of a Chairman and others members appointed by the President of India.
· The Constitution does not specify the number of members of the UPSC and has left the matter to the President (Govt). Usually, the Commission consists of 9 to 11 members including the Chairman. Currently Commission consists of a chairman and nine members.
· However, the Constitution provides that at least half of the members of the Commission should be Civil Servants (working or retired) with minimum ten years of experience either in Central or State service.
· The Chairman and the members of the commission shall hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. (in the case of SPSC or JSPSC, the age limit is 62 years)
Removal:
· The President can remove the Chairman or any other member of UPSC from the office under the following circumstances: (Art 317)
Ø If he is adjudged an insolvent (i.e. has gone bankrupt); or
Ø If he is engages, during his term of office, in any paid employment outside the duties of his office; or
Ø If he is, in the opinion of the president, unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body.
In addition to these, the President can also remove the Chairman or any other member of UPSC for misbehavior, after the Supreme courts reports.
Independence:
The Constitution has made provisions to safeguard and ensure the independent and impartial functioning of the UPSC:
I. The Chairman or a member of the UPSC can be removed from office by the President only in the manner and on the grounds mentioned in the Constitution. Therefore they enjoy security of tenure.
II. The condition of the service of the Chairman or a member, though determined by the President, cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
III. The entire expenses including the salaries, allowances and pensions of the Chairman and members of the Commission are changed on the Consolidated fund of India, thus they are not subject to vote of Parliament.
IV. In order to ensure the impartiality and independence of the member, the member is not allowed to further appointment in the same officer or in any offices, under the Govt. except a higher appointment in the same commission.
V. The chairman or a member of UPSC is (after having completed his first term) not eligible for reappointment to that office.
VI. The commission has its own staff for carrying out its functions.
The annual list of competitive exams is:
• Civil Services (Preliminary) Examination
• Civil Services (Main) Examination
• Indian Forest Service Examination
• Indian Engineering Services Examination
• Geologist Examination
• Special Class Railway Apprentices Examination
• National Defence Academy & Naval Academy Examination
• Combined Medical Services Examination
• Indian Economic Service/Indian Statistical Service Examination
• Section Officers/Stenographers (Grade-B/Grade-I) Limited Departmental Competitive Examination
• Central Police Forces (Assistant Commandants) Examination
Functions:
• It conducts examinations for appointment to the All India Services, central Services & Public services of the centrally administered territories.
• Advising on the suitability of officers for appointment on promotion as well as transfer-on-deputation;
• Disciplinary cases relating to different civil services; and
• Miscellaneous matters relating to grant of extra ordinary pensions, reimbursement of legal expenses etc.
There is a provision in the Constitution authorizing parliament to extend the functions of the Commission.
The Constitution requires the commission to submit to the president an annual report on the work done by it during the year. The report, accompanied by a memorandum explaining the action taken by the Govt. on the recommendations of the commissions is to be placed before the parliament. The memorandum should explain the reason for the non acceptance of the recommendations of the commission by the Govt, if there are such cases. Even though commission is an advisory body and its recommendations are not binding on the Govt, yet by and large, the commission’s recommendations are accepted by the govt.
Role:
Ø The UPSC is only a Central Recruiting Agency while the Department of Personnel and Training is the Central Personnel agency in India.
Ø The role of UPSC is not only limited, but also recommendations made by it are only of advisory nature and hence, not binding on the Government. In other words the function of the UPSC is to advice and not to decide. It is upto the Union Government to accept or reject this advice. Further it can also make rules known as the ‘UPSC (Exemption from consultations) Regulations, which regulates the scope of the advisory functions of UPSC.
Training of Civil Servants
• In Public Administration, training means conscious efforts made to improve the skills, powers, and intelligence of an employee and to develop his attitudes and value-system in a desired direction. In broad and general terms, training is a lifelong phenomenon.
• Training, informally and unconsciously begins with our childhood itself.
• But in the narrow and specialized sense, training of civil servants is a deliberate effort, directed to increase the specific skills and vocational competence of the civil servants in their routine work.
• William Torpey defined training as "the process of developing skills, habits, knowledge, and aptitudes in employees for the purpose of increasing the effectiveness of the employees in their present government position as well as preparing the employees for future government positions". About the meaning of training, we can say that:
1. Training is a conscious, deliberate and planned effort;
2. Training is specific and limited;
3. It means imparting instructions about a particular work or profession;
4. Its purpose is to improve the skill, knowledge and effectiveness of the employees in their task; and
5. It also aims at preparing an employee for higher responsibilities.
Following are some of the major objectives of training of civil servants:
• Training improves the efficiency of the employees in administration;
• Training improves the occupational skill and knowledge of the employees, so that they can do their work effectively;
• Training inducts a new employee into the organisation and imparts him knowledge of the goals and objectives of the organisation, his own role in the organisation and techniques and methods of carrying out his duties. Consequently, the employees can best contribute to the attainment of organizational goals;
• Because there are constant changes in the and techniques of the organizations, training adjusts the employees with the new organizational changes;
• Training makes up for the deficiencies of the newly recruited persons. Fresh University graduates are given necessary training to shape and mould them in the desired direction and make them suitable for government work.
• Training keeps the employees informed about the latest developments in his field and thus, keeps his knowledge up-to-date;
• Training improves the integrity and morale of the employees. The very existence of the training process gives the trainees‘ an added sense of dignity and in their work and office;
• Training develops a-sense of community service and belongingness in the employees. They realize that their work is an essential part of the organisation and the community. Therefore, they put more efforts in their work. This gives the employees a sense of pride and self-fulfillment in their work. It is, therefore, said that everybody in the civil service must get an opportunity of training of one kind or other;
• Training makes the employees, people oriented: It inculcates a basic principle ill them, that they are public servants and not masters. This is necessary in a democratic administrative system;
• Training prepares the employees for higher positions and greater responsibilities; and
Finally, training fosters homogeneity of outlook and broadens the vision and outlook of the employees.
So, to make the public service competent and responsive to the aspirations of the people, training is needed to the new entrants in the service.
Training in India
Establishment of training college at Calcutta in 1798 by Wellesly, Governor General of India and at Salisbury in 1809 by Court of Directors was the earliest attempts to impart training to the civil servants in India. These efforts were concentrated on training to the I. C. S. and I. P. S. recruits; no attention was paid to the training of civil servants by the British Rulers.
In 1947 the Govt. of India opted for a system of formal institutional training for their higher public service owing to the expansion and change in the nature of govt. work in the post independent period. The success of Indian democratic and planning process is linked up with the performance of the higher civil services. They were recognized as the pace setters of modernization, torch bearers of social change and would play crucial role in process of nation building,
In September 1959, the Govt. of India set up National Academy of Administration of Mussauri by merging the I. A. S. training school Delhi (established 1948) and the I. A. S. staff college, Shimla (established 1957). The Academy is known as Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration since 1972.
Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration - Role and functions:
The institute provides post-entry foundational training to the recruits to the all India and central class I services
§ Organizes Refresher Courses for I. A. S Officers, conducts an Advanced Management Development course for officers, an intermediate course for the state civil service officers.
§ It provides Professional training to I. A. S. probationers for one year, including the foundational training.
§ It conducts seminars and conferences of officers of senior level in govt.
§ It conducts field studies in Public Administration and to publish teaching materials.
§ It publishes articles, research papers, syndicate group reports, book reviews, notes and comments on various aspects of public administration through the Academy Journal.
§ It enables new recruits to benefit by close contact with each other and thus lead to diminution of service consciousness.
It attempts to give All India background and outlook to the old members of senior cadre in state Civil Service Officers and conducts seminar to create a forum for a change of administrative idea and experience.
Training method:
v The academic method of training includes lectures, tutorials and group discussions. Attendance to it is compulsory.
The probationers are divided into tutorial batches for foundational course groups and study groups for the professional subjects. Participation of probationers is expected in the group Discussion where every probationer is expected to express himself freely on problems arising out of Lectures and general topics.
Probationers are also asked to write individual papers on the problems assigned to them by teacher. At the end all these papers are coordinated into a collective appraisal of the main problems.
Seminars are held on the subjects of academic interests. Probationary volunteer themselves to write and read papers. Experts from outside also participate in the seminars Guest lecturers are invited from time to time to speak on the subjects of interests to the probationers.
Training programme:
Since 1969 the Govt. of India has introduced the “Sand witch Course” for the recruits to the I. A. S. The probationers undergo two spells of training at national Academy, and practical training in between two spells of the institutional training detailed as under:
a) From July to Dec, foundational and a brief spell of institutional training held at Academy.
b) Practical training for a period of one year in the state to which they are allotted.
c) Second spell of six months i.e. January to June in the subsequent year at the Academy.
A) First spell of training:
I. A. S., I. P. S., I. F. S. and central service class I probation undergo training in foundational course
The objectives of the foundational training:
a) To give probationers a basic understanding of the constitutional political, economic, legal and social framework within which there officers have to work.
b) To impart basic knowledge on the core subjects
c) To promote common outlook and common understanding amongst member of various higher services so that the probationer could appreciate each others role in administration.
d) To help in building up right attitudes and values and qualities of leadership and organizational skills which make a civil servant proficient in a duties.
At the end of the foundational course the U. P. S. C. conducts an examination in the middle of October and also a proficiency test in Hindi.
After the allotments of probationers to the states are known, they are provided lessons in the regional language of the state to which they are assigned.
In Dec, initial advanced training for the I. A. S. recruits in those subjects which were introduced to them in foundational course is given. A special emphasis is placed on law and Eco. Professional course examination for I. A. S. Probationers is conducted in the middle of Dec.
B) Training at the States:
On job training in the state consists of the following:
a) A short period in the state secretariat,
b) Work in treasury,
c) Acquaintance with settlement and land records.
d) Work in collector’s office.
e) Work in district office and inspection of police station.
f) Work in development departments such as agriculture, co-operation, irrigation, etc.
g) Work in sub-divisional office,
h) Magisterial and other judicial duties.
Some state Govt, have their officers’ training schools, where they attach the IAS probationers allotted to them for a period of 3 to 4 months, especially for imparting training in the revenue law of the concerned states.
C) Second spell of Academic training:
After completing the Practical Training at the state, the I. A. S. Probationers are brought back to the Academy for the Second spell of training of 6 months duration. The emphasis is on the discussion of administrative problems.
The UPSC conducts final exam after completion of second spell of training at the Academy.
Refresher Course
• For the IAS officers apart from the intensive entry point training of two years as discussed earlier, there are two types of training programmes.
• 1) Four Week's Training programme - in general management and administration arranged two to four times in the career of an employee.
• 2) One week compulsory refresher programme for every IAS officer every year.
In-service Training of the IAS officers:
• At present, IAS officers are required to attend compulsory in-service training programs. In addition, they also have a number of optional training programs that they could be selected to attend. The scheme of compulsory in-service training as well as the optional programs available are as follows:-
• IN-SERVICE COMPULSORY TRAINING
• Two week training in the service range of 6-9 years
• Two week training in the service range of 10-16 years
• Two week training in the service range of 17-20 years
• One week training in each block of two years
• IN-SERVICE OPTIONAL TRAINING
• One week program under the flexible training scheme
• Long duration programs at the IIPA/NDC
• Short or long duration programs abroad
• The scheme of compulsory in-service training of IAS officers was started in 1986 and comprised of a combination of 1-week programs to be attended every year and 4-week programs to be attended at three different levels of seniority.
• The 1-week programs also involve a kind of vertical integration, wherein officers from a wide range of seniority levels are required to attend the same program.
• The objective of these 1-week programs was to be a sabbatical during which officers would have an opportunity to, “open the windows to their mind” in an academic environment, and thus facilitate some fresh thinking.
• On the other hand, the four-week programs were more broad based in coverage and were limited to a narrower band of seniority levels.
Evaluation:
Firstly, in the light of the vastness of the country and rapidly expanding sphere of the Government functions the training arrangements are not adequate to meet the Training requirements. Only a small number of civil servants (one out of five) benefit' from the present training facilities.
Secondly, two much emphasis is laid on entry-point and in-service training of the Higher civil service like, All-India Services and Central and State Class I Services.
The training needs of the middle and lower level personnel are neglected. Up-to-date in-service training and Refresher Courses for the lower level staff are not adequately planned. As a result of this neglect, a vast majority of civil servants (80 to 90%) have no opportunity of training.
Thirdly, there is a general lack of seriousness on the part of the Government in the matter of civil service training in the country. Many times wrong type of training
programme is planned and wrong methods are adopted.
Fourthly, the contents of the training programmes are not always relevant and meaningful for the trainees. There is no relationship between the training contents and actual placement of the trainees. Many training agencies do not have co-ordination between the training programmes and needs of systematic career development. Mast training courses do not fulfil the requirements of democratic polity and development administration.
Fifthly, in most cases the training institutes follow traditional lecture method of training. Up-to-date and modern methods of training are not easily adopted. Lecture method occupies almost 80% of the training in most institutions.
Finally, training system is not linked with the education and research in the country and systematic evaluation of the training results and follow-up of the effects of training on the efficiency in administration is not attempted. Thus there are various problems in training methods and techniques in India and there is a lot of scope to improve the Indian training system in the years to come.
What are the all India services? Do you advocate their abolition?
All Indian services:-
Indian administrative system has inherited all Indian services from the colonial period. During the British Rule a number of All-India Services were established e.g. ICS (1854), Indian Agricultural Service (1906). Imperial Police Service (1905), there was nine- All India Services in 1909.
Historically, All India Services were known as the Secretary of State’s Services and were subject to administrative control of British Control over the Indian Empire. They occupied strategic positions in Provincial and central administration.
Indian Public opinion was absolutely against the continuation of All-India services after independence. The Indian National Congress was opposed to the “steel-framework” of the British Raj. There was demand for provincilization of these services from the leaders of the Muslim League.
The change in political situation after independence i.e. the partition of India, consequent problems of rehabilitation of refugees, and integration of the states, shortage of the trained personal due to pre-mature retirement sought by the British officers and the Muslim officers opting for Pakistan. Brought about the radical change in the outlook of the constituent Assembly regarding the All India Services. On the suggestion of Sardar Patel, Provision regarding All-India Services were incorporated in the Constitution.
For Dr. Pylee All India Services are “an agent and symbol of national unity” and according to Dr. Ambedkar these are “Strategic from the point of view of maintaining the standards of administration.”
Constitutional Provisions:
Part XIV, Art 312 of the Constitution of India gave the union Govt. power to establish new All-India Services in the national interest. To ensure the consent of a substantial majority of the representatives of state the Art. 312 provides that all –India Services can be created only if the council of states declares by a resolutions supported by not less than a two third majority that it is necessary in the national interest. Thus, All-India Services is a device in the co-operative federalism a wherein essential uniform services for the union and states can be established by mutual consultation and consent.
The creation of new and the Continuation of existing all India Services has been a matter of great dispute. In 1961 Rajya Sabha, adopted a resolution providing for the creation of the, i) The Indian service of engineers, ii) The Indian forest Service and iii) The Indian medicine and Health service. In 1965, the union Govt. initiated a proposal for the creation of two more all India Services namely the Indian Agricultural Service and the Indian Educational Service. Out of these efforts only Indian forest service was formally constituted in 1966. After 1967 political instability and due to the opposition of regional leaders and states, the plea to set up new-All India Services was shelved.
The leaders of the opposition parties like Shri Karunanidhi and Shri EMS Nambudripad have strongly criticized All India services.
A number of non - partisan experts like Shri K Santhanan have suggested the creation of All-India Services.
Arguments in favour of All-India services:
The continuance of the All India Services after independence is due to the belief that,
I. These services are needed at present for maintaining the unity of the country.
i. These services are needed to ensure uniform and high standards of administration in the states to provide competent administrative personnel for the new development tasks of govt. and to make possible the better co-ordination of policy between centre and the states and greater co-operation between them.
ii. It has been argued that the All India Services would create an All-India outlook in the services. Some scholars emphasized that services will ensure uniformity of the administrative system throughout the country.
iii. It is argued that All India services, owing to the prestigious position, will attract the best of the talent in the country and thereby promote administrative efficiency.
iv. The govt. in the post-independence period has resorted to centralized planning and a larger number of plan projects have been all Indian in character. The machinery of planning is effectively operated as well as the All India plan project have been efficiently implemented because of the existence of All India service.
v. The constitutional protection affected to them to them will enable them to act impartially and offer independent advice to ministers. They will not easily succumb to the local pulls and pressure, they will be able to resist the parochial forces and protect the national interest.
vi. The rotation of officers between the union and the states which is a part of the system of All India services would make the experience gained in the states available to the centre and be of help to it in dealing with country-wide problem and also enrich state administration with experience gained in the wider sphere of the nation.
Arguments against All-India Service:
The all-India services have their advantages in greater or less measures. But they also raise variety of problems.
i. Contrary to federalism: When a federal structure is provided in constitution, the continuation of such services becomes much more objectionable. The all India service is incompatible with the federal character of the Indian constitution.
ii. The officials of the All India service have always been “an object of suspicion” that they are the “agents of the central govt.”
iii. There is no co-relationship between the recruitment to a particular service and outlook of an individual. No individual is able to forget his caste, religion, language and place of birth. The melodies of communalism, casteism and regionalism are found as much in the centre as in the states.
iv. It is wrong to argue that the all-India service only attract the best of the talents. The more profitable attractive avenues of employment like managerial jobs attract the best talent and the only second best is attracted toward the government employment. The critics of the reservation of seats have argued that no of candidates enter through this way have far too below the capabilities of the other candidates. Again, 25% of the posts have reserved for the officials in the services of the posts have been reserved for the officials in the services of the state govt.
v. To be successful administrator, a deep understanding of the local customs, traditions as well as language is essential. Fifty% of the All India Service officials are outsiders. Due to lack of mastery over local language, the official may not be able to fully understand the problems of the people. The communication gap will adversely affect the efficiency of the administration.
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